The severe limitations of rogerians approach to therapy

The severe limitations of rogerians approach to therapy This essay reflects on the above statement, and begins by defining what we mean by supportive and reconstructive, when relating these to the subject of counselling and psychotherapy. In then identifying the key theories of the Rogerian approach, and exploring some of these theories in greater detail, this leads to a deeper discussion and consideration of the question. Feeling supported in the therapeutic environment is a key element to how successful and effective therapy can be. Having an open, equal, honest relationship between client and therapist is the ideal situation, and where this kind of relationship exists it can greatly enhance the healing process. When the therapist is able to offer a safe space, the client feels able to express himself freely, without fear of being judged. If supportiveness is lacking, this negatively impacts the client. Feeling judged, fearful of what the therapist might be thinking, creates barriers and an atmosphere that feels unsafe and not conducive to effective therapy. The term reconstructive can be used to describe the process where major changes occur for the client during therapy. For clients suffering from post-traumatic conditions, including complex grief reactions, reconstructive therapy focuses on facilitating the client to recognise, understand and accept their feelings and reactions. Deeper self understanding can enable clients to see they have choices, and to regain responsibility for themselves and their reactions. The concept of being supportive can be clearly identified within several Rogerian theories, namely: The Core Conditions, The Self Actualising Tendency, and the Organismic Valuing process. The connections to supportive, seen in Rogers theories are explored and discussed in more detail later. Other key Rogerian theories considered in more detail include the idea of Phenomenology, The Self-Concept (or self), and Conditions of Worth. I observe the supportive tendency towards growth as being strongly embedded within the Rogerian approach. I also identify Rogers approach as reconstructive in the sense that major positives shifts and changes often occur during therapy. Considering the question of limitations this is harder to answer. As is the case with all psychological theories there will always be limitations and exceptions to effectiveness. For a great many clients and therapists the Rogerian way of working offers both a gentle and powerful therapy, that has stood the test of time. The Rogerian approach is also known as Person Centred counselling or Client Centred therapy. It originated from the pioneering work beginning in the 1930s which continued through six decades, of American psychologist and writer, Dr Carl Ransom Rogers (1902 1987). ( Mearns and Thorne 1999). Rogers talked about client centred or person centred therapy as not just a therapeutic way of working, but more as a way of being. Being real, genuine and true to himself. (Rogers, 1980) Rogers belief was that the client knows best. His approach was a radical move away from the analytical approaches of the time, where the therapist was thought of as the expert. Rogers was convinced that we each have within us the knowledge and resources to move forward, and that the role of the therapist is to offer the conditions that facilitate clients to help themselves. (Mearns and Thorne 1999). A helpful description of the Person Centred approach is offered by J K Wood: .. it is neither a psychotherapy nor a psychology. It is not a school à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ itself, it is not a movement à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦it is not a philosophy. Nor is it any number of other things frequently imagined. It is merely, as its name implies, an approach, nothing more, nothing less. It is a psychological posture, if you like, from which thought or action may arise and experience be organised. It is a way of being. (Wood 1996, cited in Embleton Tudor, Keemar, Tudor, Valentine, Worrall, 2004) Phenomenology comes from the work of Edmund Husseri (1859 1938), Martin Heidegger (1889 1976), and Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1907 1961). (cited in Embleton Tudor, Keemar, Tudor, Valentine, Worrall, 2004, pp 18 24). Phenomenology is based around the idea that reality is not fixed. We each perceive our own reality, which is informed by our life experiences, biases, prejudices, and perceptual filters. We all experience reality in our own unique way. (Embleton Tudor, Keemar, Tudor, Valentine, Worrall, 2004) Rogers said: I do not react to some absolute reality, but to my perception of this reality. It is this perception which for me is reality. (Rogers, 1951) Empathic understanding can be described as a process of attending phenomenologically to the phenomenological world of another. From phenomenological thinking comes the phenomenological method, which contains three steps enabling us to be as open as possible to each new experience. The first step is to bracket all our pre-conceptions that we have taken on board and tend to automatically believe. Our challenge is to set these beliefs to the side on the basis that they are limiting and unhelpful and likely to impede our experience of this moment now. The next step is for us to describe rather than judge our experience. Our tendency is to analyse, evaluate and judge. The challenge here is to describe what we observe, rather than put our pre-conceived interpretation and judgement onto the experience. By staying close to felt senses we can be more open to accurately describing what we experience. The last step is to avoid putting a hierarchy on what we notice and experience. To be open to valuing everything we have noticed equally. These three steps combined, encourage non judgemental openness to experiencing, which sits well within Rogers Person Centred approach. Rogers believed that all human beings have within them an inherent tendency towards growth and fulfilment. He called this directional process in life the actualising tendency. (Rogers, 1980). Rogers saw life as an active process, and that regardless of the environment living things can be counted on to move towards maintaining and enhancing themselves. He recognised that the actualising tendency can be frustrated by adverse circumstances and events, but saw that this striving for growth always remains even in the most difficult of conditions. An example he gives is of the potatoes kept in the cellar of his childhood home that still grew in the semi-darkness, desperate to live, growing sad spindly sprouts towards the distant light in little cellar window. (Rogers, 1980). According to Rogers, humans have the ability within themselves to know what is good for them. He termed this ability organismic valuing. Trusting in our inner knowledge and intuition supports our self actualising tendency. The self actualising tendency becomes suppressed when organismic valuing gets lost through negative introjects and limiting beliefs. This usually stems from childhood, as a result of taking on conditions of worth from significant close others (for example parents, siblings, teachers). When worth or love is only expressed if we conform to certain conditions imposed by others, we take on board negative and distorted beliefs, often carrying them throughout our lives. Our locus of evaluation becomes external, constantly seeking direction, approval and reassurance of others. The Rogerian ideal is to have an internal locus of evaluation. With an internal locus of evaluation we are able to trust our own judgement, rely on our gut feelings, and have confidence in our own ability to know what is right. (Rogers, 1951) The self-concept is a persons conceptual construction of themself. Self-concepts often are not in balance with the actualising tendency and the organisimic valuing process. Self-concepts begin in infancy and develop over time. They are shaped by our perception of the attitudes and behaviours towards us of significant others. The need for positive regard and to feel approved of by others is a fundamental and powerful want. Conflict occurs when this need isnt fulfilled, and negative self-concepts become embedded. (Dryden 2007, pp 149 151). Rogers believed that peoples personalities are made up of two components, the organismic self and the self concept. The organismic self is the self I was born with, the real me. The self concept is the person I have become during my life in order to receive positive self regard from others. Introjects from those close to me, like my parents and others, have forced values inside me that arent in harmony with my organismic self. These become conditions of worth, causing me to behave in certain ways in order to receive the positive self regard from those close to me that I need. Small children have an inbuilt need to be loved by their parents. The child will feel like it is going to die if this need is denied. The locus of evaluation for the organismic self is internal, inside me. The locus of evaluation for the self concept is external approval is sought from outside. An example of organsimic self verses self concept comes from my own life: When I was in my mid teens I came under the influence of a powerful older man. For many years I felt controlled by him. I sought his approval in all areas of my life and my own personality became more and more subdued. He influenced my work, my social life, my romantic / sexual relationships, my family life my opinions and values. I felt I didnt have any of my own opinions any more. When I attempted to break free from his influence, he would react very badly and wear down my self esteem even further, making me feel powerless, worthless and useless. I suffered a lot of anxiety and unhappiness during those years. He also had the power to make me feel very good, if he chose to. His approval was so important to me. It was only in my thirties I managed to fully break free from his influence. I was able to begin returning to the real me, to re-discover my organism self, and accept myself as a worthwhile person with my own views and values. The following two examples illustrate the power of interjects in creating conditions of worth: Jake talked about his experience as a small child where he didnt want to eat and would find any excuse to get out of eating. As a punishment for refusing to eat his parents would shut him out of the flat, leaving him on the landing outside the flat, locked out. Jake described how this made him feel I felt completely rejected, I was thrown out of my house. This example shows how in this case the behaviour of his parents had a very negative effect on the his sense of worth and self concept, as a small child. Jake felt that a minor misdemeanour could take away the love of his parents and the security of his home of which he was not worthy anymore. These events seriously negatively affected Jakes conditions of worth for many years. When I became pregnant in my late teens I felt very frightened and alone and not able to share this traumatic event with my parents. Shortly after having a termination my secret came out. The reaction from my mother was angry and judging, I remember her words how could you do such a thing. I took this to mean how could I have sex, and how could I have an abortion. I felt very ashamed and guilty and bad about myself. This affected my romantic and sexual relationships and my views on sex and pregnancy for many years. This example shows how one sentence from my mother (a negative introjection of her values) had a huge affect on my conditions of worth and had long lasting negative consequences. In contrast, my fathers reaction to the news of my unplanned pregnancy and that Id had a termination was completely different. He was sensitive and supportive, not judgemental and very understanding of my decision. This had a very positive effect on my view of my father, and my relationship with him. It also helped to balance the strong negative reaction I felt to my mothers response. I still look back on this memory as a time when I realised what a wonderful man my father is. My respect and affection for him has only grown since this experience. Looking back it is clear to me that he offered me empathy, congruence and UPR at a time when I really needed it. Rogerian therapy is built around the premise that if certain conditions are present then healing will occur. 1. Psychological contact between the counsellor and the client 2. The client is in a vulnerable or anxious state 3. The counsellor is congruent 4. The client experiences unconditional positive regard and feels accepted by the counsellor 5. Empathic understanding of client by counsellor The client receives the empathy and unconditional positive regard and congruence Rogers claimed that as long as these conditions were there, this was all that was needed. He described them as being necessary and sufficient. (Rogers, 1951) Of the six conditions, three are core, these are Empathy, Unconditional Positive Regard (UPR), and Congruence. These three conditions need only be minimally present, in order for therapeutic personality change to take place. Returning to empathy, I see this as being able to put myself by the side of the client, and to understand their feelings. Phenomenologically I will never be able to fully know how someone else feels, but believe that empathy takes me close enough. Rogerian counsellors demonstrate empathy by active listening in a sensitive way, and reflecting feeling words back to the client, and also by tone of voice, body language and mirroring facial expressions. Paraphrasing can be used to summarise what the client is saying, with clarification whenever there is any confusion about what the client is trying to communicate. (Mearns and Thorne, 1999) Unconditional Positive Regard can be defined as respecting the client as a human being and not judging. It may be that there is sometimes something to do with the clients actions or behaviours which the counsellor doesnt agree with, but this doesnt stop UPR being offered. It is about giving respect to a fellow human being without conditions. From the clients point of view, receiving UPR will improve their own feelings of self-worth. If they have been in a cycle of behaving badly because this has always been what has been expected by others, then the cycle can be broken by UPR being offered by the counsellor. In order to offer UPR, it is important that the counsellor has a high degree of self awareness and has worked through her own issues and is clear about any biases or prejudices, and able to put these to the side. (Mearns and Thorne, 1999) Congruence means being real and genuine, the counsellor being able to be herself and to be open and honest with the client. Being congruent means removing pretence or acting, and being fully present. Receiving congruence and seeing the counsellor isnt perfect and has vulnerabilities, reassures the client that it is ok to be imperfect and vulnerable. (Mearns and Thorne, 1999) Person centred counselling can be an extremely powerful therapy and can have an enormous impact in enabling damaged people to heal themselves. One of the basic criticisms of Person Centred Counselling is around its theory which is based around our built in motivation to self actualise, grow and achieve. The reality of todays world is that there are many people who dont demonstrate this self actualising tendency. What Rogers didnt explain was if everyone is basically good deep down inside, why arent societies better and better as a result? It is also argued by some that person centred counselling is limited. It can be seen as being a passive soft kind of therapy, with the balance of power with the client, and the counsellor not offering the client advice or solutions. Is this a weakness or a strength? My view is that it is a strength and one of the key reasons why person centred counselling is so effective. The counsellors role isnt that of an expert solving the clients problems, but as someone able to reflect back the clients thoughts and feelings, in a respectful and honest manner, enabling the client to begin to heal himself. Taking this further and coming back to the title question, I see that the fact that Rogerian counselling offers a safe and supportive space for the client, this is what then enables the reconstructive process to take place. Clients come to therapy for a variety of reasons, but they all have one thing in common, they are in emotional pain. The gentle yet powerful elements of Rogerian therapy allow the client to be safe enough with the counsellor to express their emotional pain. In order to get to this place of safety, there has to be a strong level of trust between the client and the counsellor. This trust grows, through the counsellor offering empathy, congruence and unconditional positive regard. For major shifts to happen first the client needs to be open and honest and be able to express their distress. The next step is for the client to take the risk of moving out of their comfort zone and challenging themselves. This is when the greatest shifts can occur. In order for either of these steps it is absolutely key that the client trusts and feels secure with the counsellor. The person centred values promote and encourage this by offering an equal non judgemental honest real relationship. To return to the question, in my view and my experience, Rogerian therapy is both supportive and reconstructive. I feel its only limitations lie within individual clients. If a client is not ready to explore themselves honestly, to open up and challenge themselves, then change wont occur. The client has to be ready to engage in what can often be painful self exploration. When a client is ready and wants to do this, working in the Rogerian way can have powerful life changing results. The Rogerian approach is a way of being, and this way of being can be applied to all aspects of life. In terms of therapy, I see this approach being very valuable. Other tools and skills can be offered to clients, in a person centred way, which I see as greatly enhancing the therapeutic process.

Galtung and Ruges model of news values

Galtung and Ruges model of news values 1 Using examples from one edition of a newspaper or a television newscast, critically evaluate Galtung and Ruges model of news values and their relevance in contemporary news culture. Galtung J. and Ruge M. (1981) Structuring and Selecting News in Cohen S. and Young J. The Manufacture of News Constable. (You may also find it useful to consult the fuller version of this article in Tunstall J. ed. Media Sociology: A Reader, Constable, 1970). The classic framework. You should also use at least one of the following evaluations: Bell A. (1991) The Language of News Media, Blackwell, p.155-161. INTRODUCTION Johan Galtung and Marie Holmboe Ruge (1965) through their empirical research and theoretical approach on the models of news values defined it as specific standards adhered to by media professionals in the structuring ,selection and production of news stories worthy of reporting to the audience by news reporter, journalist, and broadcasting media professionals also as a general guidelines and criteria that determines the worth of news and how much prominence is given by newspapers, radio, or television reporters. News values are based on a variety of ideas or assumption which form the ideological background to the work of editors, reporters and journalist (Bell,1991).The way in which news is reported is heavily reliable, and dependent on the news providers processing , structuring and reporting of the news content to the audience through newspapers, television, and radio broadcast medium. News values practices both globally and locally can be analyzed alongside Galtung an d Ruges (1967) model of news values providing comprehensive insight to the intentions of the news media industry and their relevance in contemporary news culture practices today both in the national and international news media as reported in the news by these journalist, reporters and media professionals making stories that are newsworthy. Galtung and Ruges model is very straight and comprehensive in its research and academic thoughts on how news are being structured , but not without criticism from other emerging scholars and academia on how relevant these news values can affect other media professionals, reporters, and journalist within in the international scene of contemporary news reporting, structuring and production in the media news values culture . In a recent study, Cohen Young,(1973) Galtung and Ruges models, have also supported and complemented these news values ideology involved in the structure and selection of news and its values making it newsworthy for the audience and readership. There are fundamentals to understanding news production and the choices that editors, producers and other journalists face in decision making on what news values seems more news worthy than another thereby making the media professionals responsible in accounting for the way the news are structured with particular reference to the news values ethical standards, norms and guides in the ideology of model of news values on journalism. Journalist have taken this analysis as a starting point and developed from it a set of principles that should used in identifying newsworthy information. Bell (1991) illustrates Galtung and Ruge news values and discussion on the processes involved in the structuring, presentation and selection news stories report by journalist. These basic twelve news values provide a structural basis for journalists to report stories that are newsworthy to audience ensuring they conform with these ethics. In Galtung and Ruges model, if the news values are adhered to, the story will be successful in reaching, and keeping the public informed and update is largely based on the psychology of perception by the audience, and argues that audiences receive news stories through these factors referred to as the news values which the reporters, journalist and editors are responsible on making these news informative, entertaining in capturing their interest on the way news are consumed. Galtung and Ruge recognised that people cannot absorb very large amounts of news and information, they are choices of selection involved in the information and in doing so only s elect what seems important and of interest to them. It is in this process that journalists and news organization, professionals select and report information to appeal to its main consumers and readership. These news values now come into place, with news producers structuring the news reported around these values to achieve the greatest interest and impact in ensuring it attracts the interest of audience. (CohenYoung, 1973) Galtung and Ruges twelve news values can also be sub-divided , these news values includes the main basic eight universally accepted and the four which he termed can be culturally specific by media reports and journalist as a general factors consisting of frequency, amplitude, unambiguity, meaningfulness, consonance, unexpectedness, continuity,while the other four factors negativity, threshold, cultural proximity are based on the cultural specification varying from national and international source of news processing, selection, and structuring involved in the event of news making and the worthiness of the news values . What we choose or select as news stories could be culturally determined, since the audience and readers cannot accumulate every news content, there is a choice of selection on individual differences, and the probability on how the issues in questions will attract a readers attention or listener (CohenYoung, 1973). These values provide journalists with a mechanism to so rt through quickly, process and select the news from that vast amount of information made available. have taken this analysis as a starting point and developed from it a set of principles that journalists should use to identify newsworthy information. Although Galtung and Ruge model was researched over thirty years ago, it still remains the most adaptable and acceptable news values model until present day in news making and journalism. Most media analysis or discourse of news values will refer to most of Galtung and Ruges classification of news values despite the criticism from other academic scholars and schools of thought, which provides the ideology that important stories which scores highly on each value are likely to become the headline news bulletin, or make the front page of a newspaper stories or television broadcast. Also it is important to note that these news values factors were more implemented by reporters, journalist and media producers in the western and scandinavian countries of Galtung and Ruges model in the structure, selection and reporting of news content which will be critically evaluated from my point of view, though these news values being the dominant model ,it still varies from other national and internati onal news reports, media broadcasting ideologies being practiced across other parts of the globe outside the western countries and north american hemisphere. According to other schools of thought by journalism and media scholars there is no end to lists of news criteria (p. 31). Among the many lists of news values that have been drawn up by scholars and journalists, some like Galtung and Ruges news values model attempts to describe news practices across cultures, while others have become remarkably specific to the press of certain (often western) nations (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_values). Presently, virtually every media discourse and analytic discussion of news values will refer to most of Galtung and Ruges model of news values models. In critically evaluating Galtung and Ruges twelve models of news values, a British newspaper editorial will be used in citing as a good evaluation analysis on how these news values hypothesis relates to present day processes of selection and structuring of news by editors , reporters, journalist and media professional in contemporary society and its criticism in properly analyzing the realities with reference to Britain newspaper within the western media context, and the news values critically evaluated in both foreign and local news media context on how these news values are being implemented for audience interest. SUN NEWSPAPER CRITICAL EVALUTION OF GALTUNG AND RUGE MODEL In the Sun news paper edition of Thursday, December 17, 2009 with the caption headline JOES GOT FRIENDS IN HIGH PLACES illustrates the selection process of newsworthy media text by these newspaper editors to attract the audience readers with such a caption, Galtung and Ruges model analyses the need for inter- relationship of how these news values are being implemented by the news reporters, editors in making the lead front page story which relates to the way news reporting are selected, structured and presented to suit the basic norms and ethics guiding the news values processes in media industry. Cohen Young (1981, pg56) states that structuring and selection of news stories can be highlighted with these news values that the more events concerns elite persons and elite nations activity makes a good newsworthy story in the selection process of the manufacturing of news stories. The front page lead story news headline involves the news values model of elite person and the elite nation with royalties of the government is being implemented by the news editor in making it a headline caption will be more of interest concerning global powers and the impact of the news with relevance on how these news may affect on the home culture and the lives of the people with the national context and specifically on the culture will definitely be the main interest of attention to the readership audience making it newsworthy lead front page story. The news values of meaningfulness with the audience who share same values, culture and ideology will make a good interest point and receive more media c overage which the lead page story of the editorial highlights and the hypothesis of continuity which the story been very accessible to the audience will definitely be included by the reporters in the selection process of the news, making it attractive to audience readership. Galtung and Ruges model that when a news seems to be very important to the audience and still running in media will be of great importance and continued to be covered by reporters for some time.(Bell Bells (1991) evaluation of Galtung and Ruge news values model states that the presentation of a story enhances its chances of being news worthy for audience. The reference to elite person, and elite nation highlighted in the front page headline lead story of the newspaper and the news decision by editors, confirms with the news values ethics of western media industry in implementing these news model making it very favourable news within the competitive market of news media industry in ensuring the news gets to the audiences. The famous and powerful in the society are being treated of being of more importance which the front page story tends to capture as a newsworthy story and how their decision and action can affect peoples life, which is portrayed with the activities of such elite activity and its importance in making a good news from the journalist ideology of news values in contemporary western news culture, because it combines the publics supposed interest with the famous and el ite activity in the news within the cultural proximity of Britain which makes it a newsworthy story. Gatlung and Ruges news values of meaningfulness inter relates in the front page story illustration of the event with the hypothesis of the relevance of these news affecting the lives of the people within the cultural proximity.(Bell,1991) The unambiguity news value model illustrated by Bell, states that the more clear cut a story is, the more it is favoured (Bell,1991) .But critically evaluating these model in the front page lead story on the Sun newspaper editorial , it can be critically evaluated that the editorial publication might not be of interest to someone outside the cultural proximity or geographical context of Britain, and the non -western media axis, from readers in another country and will not attract readership interest based on individual perception within the international and foreign news media context, and may vary from different norms and guides considering the news values and cultures on how reporters and journalist, editors in other non-western countries may stru cture, select and produce their news stories in contemporary news culture and journalism. Galtung and Ruges hypothesis of frequency in the lead story being the royal hierarchy in britain is a point of interest and attention to readers from the reporters and editors implementation of the news story making it a news headline front page story with the impact of the news headlines relating to the meaningfulness of the event, relevance in the lives of the people and the cultural proximity of the british audiences within the national scene, and journalist selection and production of these news stories. In critically evaluating Galtung and Ruges model on the front page story of the Sun Newspaper editorial, it can be evaluated that the use of news codes which the model pays little or no attention to with use of language in the front page story news with the use of photographs was very visible, and also being a newspaper editorial not all aspects of the news values are being captured by these medium. Meanwhile these news values model still remains the most comprehensive school of thought on media and journalism in western countries media on the news information selection and structuring by media reporters, and editors within international news and national news (Cohen Young, 1973). The ideology of the news values model of these front page stories concentrates on the holders of political power not holder of the economic power within the news values. The criticism of these lead page story also centres on some news values model which it categorically states are responsible for the news ,but they are complex issues involved in news making than the SECOND FRONT PAGE LEAD STORY CRITICAL EVALUATION. OF GALTUNG AND RUGE MODEL. The frequency news value hypothesis as evaluated by Bells (1991) in the content of the news states that the best news is something which has only just happened making it definitely to be news worthy for attracting audience interest and readership, The more similar the frequency of the event to the news medium, the more probable that it will be recorded as a news(CohenYoung, 1981). The sub- heading editorial on the front page headline new story with continuation on the second page lead story also has the combination of various news values which are inter- related in ensuring the news editors make a complete and interesting process involved in news selection, structuring to suit the audience. The news values of negativity in the newspaper highlights the editors approach of making the information of concern and interest which seems a Galtung and Ruges model in evaluating these news values model shown with the second page lead story YOUNG N DOLED in the editorial with an emerging situati on on the issues concerns the hypothesis of threshold which hold that the bigger the impact of the story and its relevance on the people , the better it make a good story relates in these second page editorial on the seriousness and will be of interest to audience with such caption headline news making it newsworthy. Galtung and ruges news values of meaningfulness shows that the audience will be attracted to such news , as an event which seems to affect the lives of the audiences seems more relevance as being newsworthy. The cultural proximity of Britain and the impact on how it affects all the people will enhance its newsworthiness to the audience within the international news media agenda. In Bells evaluation on these news values, the negativity hypothesis makes the second page story very understanding on the news selection process by the editors on how the journalist and editor shape the news content and making it very interesting good news process of structuring, selection and p resentation to its reading audience. Though the news has a short fall in the consonance, and composition news values model which doesnt make it a complete news values report by journalism ethics and the reports maybe biased, and inaccurate as a political propaganda by political opponents. Bell (1991) states that negativity news values makes the formal norm of news reporting from historical perspective, that bad news makes a good news story which journalist argue with Galtung and Ruges model of news value and its very conflicting that what attracts audience interest is bad news in media reporting, which seems illustrated in the second page lead story news caption. Bad news stories are more likely to be reported than good news because they are more likely to score high on other news values, such as threshold, unexpectedness, unambiguity and meaningfulness .Thomas(2009) Galtung and Ruges news values with the hypothesis of threshold holds an important issue in the seriousness of the news article and situation affecting the lives of the people. The process involved in the organization, selection and presentation of these news stories from the editors although analysis by J. Galtung and M. Ruge showed that several factors are consistently applied across a range of news organizations on how best these makes up a good news story to the audience.

In this essay I will be investigating the fate and characteristics of

In this essay I will be investigating the fate and characteristics of a tragic hero in a play A View From The Bridge written by Arthur Miller. The character discussed in this essay is a longshoreman named Eddie Carbone. In this essay I will be investigating the fate and characteristics of a tragic hero in a play "A View From The Bridge" written by Arthur Miller. The character discussed in this essay is a longshoreman named Eddie Carbone - a responsible family man living in the rough neighborhoods of Red hook, Brooklyn, New York. A Sicilian community bound by a strict social code. Eddie's credentials are compared against Aristotle's view of a tragic hero " one who is neither villainous or virtuous, moving from a high happy status to a miserable one through some frailty or error in judgment." Through out the play we witness the development of this as we see Eddie fall from his high status in the community to losing everything, his family, respected name in the community and even his life. By witnessing his downfall (nemesis) the audience is moved to pity (pathos) because he suffers from a frailty that we recognize which could have happen to us. This is what makes him a tragic hero. Although fate plays a large part in his downfall, much of the events conspiring against him are caused by his flawed characteristics and wrong doings. So in this essay I will be determining whether Eddie Carbone disserves our pity. Eddie Carbone is respected in his community, seen as a reliable dominant longshoreman who "was as good as a man he had to be in a life that was hard and even." His name represents a lot in his community and brings pride back home. He is a caring family man, Beatrice usually gives in to his dema... ...he cruel reality of the society. Being an uncle, the level of incest is not as strong compared to father and daughter relationship. The gap between illegal family laws is smaller creating a stronger temptation for Eddie which makes his incestuous feeling difficult to ignore. And after all "Eddie was never meant to have a destiny" Eddie has lost everything, his family, his confidence in the community, friends etcetera. Basically eddie has already been paid back for all the faults he uncontrollably committed. I believe miller has succeeded in making us feel pity for Eddie. I think Eddie has represented a lot of individuals with incest problems, shown us how easily it was to be a victim and how emotionally difficult it is to free yourself. Finding your own daughter sexually attractive is an easy thing. He has made us wonder " Is incest really that bad?"

The Road Not Taken And Stopping By Woods On A Snowy Evening - Analysis

Robert Lee Frost (born in San Francisco, March 26, 1874 and died in Boston, January 29, 1963) was one of America's leading 20th-century poets and a four-time winner of the Pulitzer Prize. Although his verse forms are traditional, he was a pioneer in the interplay of rhythm and meter and in the poetic use of the vocabulary and inflections of everyday speech. His poetry is thus both traditional and experimental. After Frost’s father died in 1885, the family left California and settled in Massachusetts. From 1897 to 1899 he attended Harvard College as a special student, but left without a degree. Over the next ten years he wrote (but rarely published) poems, operated a farm in Derry, New Hampshire (purchased for him by his grandfather), and supplemented his income by teaching. In 1912 he sold the farm and used the proceeds to take his family to England, where he could devote himself entirely to writing. His efforts to establish himself and his work were almost immediately successful. A Boy's Will was accepted by a London publisher and brought out in 1913, followed a year later by North of Boston. In 1924 he received a Pulitzer Prize in poetry for New Hampshire (1923). He received it again for Collected Poems (1930), A Further Range (1936), and A Witness Tree (1942). Over the years he received an unprecedented number and range of literary, academic, and public honors. 1 The Road Not Taken Although I must admit that I am not a poetry fan, many of the poems of Robert Frost appeal to me, and this would have to be the one that appeals the most, in other words, it is my favorite poem. When I first read this poem, I liked it because of its free verse style (which I like) and its apparent simplicity, but, after much study, its true meaning became apparent. The obvious basic meaning is that the poem is about a person’s choices in life. The narrator describes coming to a problem with the fork in the road. He must go down one but feels he will not be able to take back his decision. He looks to see the pros and cons of each choice, and then takes the one that he says the least had traveled. He leaves the outcome up to the reader and the sigh at the end can be taken as good or bad. This leaves the reader the choice of deciding whether it is better to conform with society or rebel like Frost did and take up a less stable trade. However, there are many places to which... ..., he is far away from the city, and the city is like a synonym for life – and one of the opposites of life is death. Another closely related example of symbolism is â€Å"Between the woods and the frozen lake†. The woods are now a symbol of life – a change from the previous example – and the frozen lake, devoid of life, is a symbol of death. The final example of symbolism is an obvious one in which death is compared to sleep. Frost’s â€Å"difference† (The Road not Taken ln20) was always in him. This can be seen long before he starts his actual writing career. While he learned to read at a very late age of 14, he had already sold a poem at the age of 15. The road that Frost took was not only the â€Å"different† road and the right road for him, but also the only road that he could possibly have taken. The Road Not Taken and the often-studied Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening â€Å"exemplify Frost's ability to join the pastoral and philosophical modes in lyrics of unforgettable beauty†1. Frost's poetic and political conservatism caused him to lose favor with some literary critics, but his reputation as a major poet is secure. He unquestionably succeeded in realizing his life's ambition: to write.

Hr Job Analysis

Introduction Job analysis is the process of describing and recording aspects of jobs and specifying the skills and other requirements necessary to perform the job. The main purposes of conducting job analysis are to prepare job description and job specification which in turn helps to hire the right quality of work force into the organization at right place and with the right skills. Job description and job specification further gives conclusions for job evaluation. In the fields of Human Resource (HR), job analysis is often used to gather information for use in personnel selection, training, classification, and compensation and salary.There are several ways to conduct a job analysis, including: interviews with incumbents and supervisors, group interviews, questionnaires (structured, open- ended, or both), observation, diary method and gathering background information such as duty statements or classification specifications. Yet it none of the methods can give 100% perfect results hen ce in job analysis conducted by HR professionals, it is common to use more than one of these methods or a combination of these methods. For example, the job analysts may tour the jobsite and observe workers performing their jobs.During the tour the analyst may collect materials that directly or indirectly indicate required skills (duty statements, instructions, safety manuals, quality charts, etc. ). The analyst may then meet with a group of workers or incumbents. And finally, a survey may be administered. In these cases, job analysts typically are industrial/organizational psychologists or Human Resource Officers who have been trained. The job analysis that i conducted is the interview method. Here is a brief introduction of the organization and the incumbent interviewed for job analysis. Allied Bank LimitedAllied bank is one of the biggest banks of Pakistan. It is an old organization which was formed before partition in 1942. It was the first Muslim Bank Established in Pakistani t erritory before Partition (1942) with the name of Australasia Bank. It was named as Allied Bank of Pakistan from Australasia Bank Limited in 1974, and Sarhad Bank Ltd, Lahore Commercial Bank Ltd and Pak Bank Ltd were also merged in it. In August 2004 the Bank was restructured and the ownership was transferred to Ibrahim Group. Currently, it has 800 online branches with a total of 12000 work forces in Pakistan.Introduction of interviewee The incumbent interviewed for the purpose of job analysis is Shahid Rafique. He works Regional Corporate Office Allied Bank Limited 7-E/3 Main Boulevard, Gulberg-3 Lahore. Email ID: [email  protected] com Job description Organization name: Allied Bank Limited Job Title: Branch manager Reports to: Regional headquarters/Regional manager Supervises: All the departments of the branch Functions: Manages and administers operations of the branch Duties and responsibilities * Plan and direct the branch operations and administer the working of the whole bra nch. Supervise the human resource of its own branch department wise. * Marketing of the bank which includes achieving the deposit targets assigned to the branch. Attending meetings for the marketing and making sure the targets are achieved within the given time. * Provide a superior level of customer relations and promote the sales and service culture. * Coordinating with regional headquarters for getting updated with the organizational goals and objectives and also let all the employees of the branch well aware of the goals and objectives of the organization. Making sure that employees working under his/her supervision are well motivated and maintained properly. * Evaluate the performance of the employees working under his/her supervision. * Reporting about all the duties and responsibilities to the Regional Manager. Job specification * 16 years of education, Master’s degree or equivalent. * Preferred field of study is MBA Marketing. * At least 5 years of experience in banki ng or any financial organization including marketing experience as well. * Minimum age limit is 25 years. * A good manger should have: * Marketing skills Communication skills * Critical thinking * Should be a good psychiatrist (in context with customer behaviour and Psyche). Job evaluation Branch manager is a very important designation to the organization. A Branch Manager is a very much skilled and experienced worker who is much aware of the organizational goals and objectives and coordinates those goals and objectives to the employees working in his/her supervision. The salary range for a Branch Manager should be from 70,000 to 90,000. The job is evaluated through two types of reports: Annual performance report. * Annual confidential. Comments from the incumbent for job evaluation Any incumbent can be evaluated so that the incumbent is also satisfied of the annual reports is to ask him/her to write the APR for his/herself and then supervisor should evaluate the APR. Conclusion The conclusion of the whole discussion is that the main purpose of conducting a job analysis is to prepare job description and job specification which in turn helps to hire the right quality of work force into the organization at right place and with the right skills.Job description and job specification further gives conclusions for job evaluation. This information is used to design effective job. To design effective job we should keep balance between efficiency and behavioural elements. Efficiency element emphasizes productivity and behavioural element focus on employee needs. In my job analysis a branch manager is a leader of the branch. Person working as a branch manager should be bold enough to lead a team of 20 or more. He/she should be a good marketer and a good psychiatrist so that he/she can understand the mind set of the customers.A Branch Manager should have good communication skills to tackle different situations and can handle contingency plans. Fair salary and compensatio n and other benefit should be given to the manger to keep balance. Job analysis is very important and a very complicated process. Yet there are some limitations of job analysis for example a Job descriptions may not be suitable for some senior managers as they should have the freedom to take the initiative and find fruitful new directions.Job descriptions may be too inflexible in a rapidly changing organization, for instance in an area subject to rapid technological change. Other changes in job content may lead to the job description being out of date. The process that an organization uses to create job descriptions may not be optimal. There is no method for it which can give perfect results but through combination of methods and careful analysis one can have good results . Experience is needed for analysing jobs. Hr Job Analysis Introduction Job analysis is the process of describing and recording aspects of jobs and specifying the skills and other requirements necessary to perform the job. The main purposes of conducting job analysis are to prepare job description and job specification which in turn helps to hire the right quality of work force into the organization at right place and with the right skills. Job description and job specification further gives conclusions for job evaluation. In the fields of Human Resource (HR), job analysis is often used to gather information for use in personnel selection, training, classification, and compensation and salary.There are several ways to conduct a job analysis, including: interviews with incumbents and supervisors, group interviews, questionnaires (structured, open- ended, or both), observation, diary method and gathering background information such as duty statements or classification specifications. Yet it none of the methods can give 100% perfect results hen ce in job analysis conducted by HR professionals, it is common to use more than one of these methods or a combination of these methods. For example, the job analysts may tour the jobsite and observe workers performing their jobs.During the tour the analyst may collect materials that directly or indirectly indicate required skills (duty statements, instructions, safety manuals, quality charts, etc. ). The analyst may then meet with a group of workers or incumbents. And finally, a survey may be administered. In these cases, job analysts typically are industrial/organizational psychologists or Human Resource Officers who have been trained. The job analysis that i conducted is the interview method. Here is a brief introduction of the organization and the incumbent interviewed for job analysis. Allied Bank LimitedAllied bank is one of the biggest banks of Pakistan. It is an old organization which was formed before partition in 1942. It was the first Muslim Bank Established in Pakistani t erritory before Partition (1942) with the name of Australasia Bank. It was named as Allied Bank of Pakistan from Australasia Bank Limited in 1974, and Sarhad Bank Ltd, Lahore Commercial Bank Ltd and Pak Bank Ltd were also merged in it. In August 2004 the Bank was restructured and the ownership was transferred to Ibrahim Group. Currently, it has 800 online branches with a total of 12000 work forces in Pakistan.Introduction of interviewee The incumbent interviewed for the purpose of job analysis is Shahid Rafique. He works Regional Corporate Office Allied Bank Limited 7-E/3 Main Boulevard, Gulberg-3 Lahore. Email ID: [email  protected] com Job description Organization name: Allied Bank Limited Job Title: Branch manager Reports to: Regional headquarters/Regional manager Supervises: All the departments of the branch Functions: Manages and administers operations of the branch Duties and responsibilities * Plan and direct the branch operations and administer the working of the whole bra nch. Supervise the human resource of its own branch department wise. * Marketing of the bank which includes achieving the deposit targets assigned to the branch. Attending meetings for the marketing and making sure the targets are achieved within the given time. * Provide a superior level of customer relations and promote the sales and service culture. * Coordinating with regional headquarters for getting updated with the organizational goals and objectives and also let all the employees of the branch well aware of the goals and objectives of the organization. Making sure that employees working under his/her supervision are well motivated and maintained properly. * Evaluate the performance of the employees working under his/her supervision. * Reporting about all the duties and responsibilities to the Regional Manager. Job specification * 16 years of education, Master’s degree or equivalent. * Preferred field of study is MBA Marketing. * At least 5 years of experience in banki ng or any financial organization including marketing experience as well. * Minimum age limit is 25 years. * A good manger should have: * Marketing skills Communication skills * Critical thinking * Should be a good psychiatrist (in context with customer behaviour and Psyche). Job evaluation Branch manager is a very important designation to the organization. A Branch Manager is a very much skilled and experienced worker who is much aware of the organizational goals and objectives and coordinates those goals and objectives to the employees working in his/her supervision. The salary range for a Branch Manager should be from 70,000 to 90,000. The job is evaluated through two types of reports: Annual performance report. * Annual confidential. Comments from the incumbent for job evaluation Any incumbent can be evaluated so that the incumbent is also satisfied of the annual reports is to ask him/her to write the APR for his/herself and then supervisor should evaluate the APR. Conclusion The conclusion of the whole discussion is that the main purpose of conducting a job analysis is to prepare job description and job specification which in turn helps to hire the right quality of work force into the organization at right place and with the right skills.Job description and job specification further gives conclusions for job evaluation. This information is used to design effective job. To design effective job we should keep balance between efficiency and behavioural elements. Efficiency element emphasizes productivity and behavioural element focus on employee needs. In my job analysis a branch manager is a leader of the branch. Person working as a branch manager should be bold enough to lead a team of 20 or more. He/she should be a good marketer and a good psychiatrist so that he/she can understand the mind set of the customers.A Branch Manager should have good communication skills to tackle different situations and can handle contingency plans. Fair salary and compensatio n and other benefit should be given to the manger to keep balance. Job analysis is very important and a very complicated process. Yet there are some limitations of job analysis for example a Job descriptions may not be suitable for some senior managers as they should have the freedom to take the initiative and find fruitful new directions.Job descriptions may be too inflexible in a rapidly changing organization, for instance in an area subject to rapid technological change. Other changes in job content may lead to the job description being out of date. The process that an organization uses to create job descriptions may not be optimal. There is no method for it which can give perfect results but through combination of methods and careful analysis one can have good results . Experience is needed for analysing jobs.

Development Stages: Adolescence

Development refers to growth, adaptation and change that occur over the course of a lifetime (Papalia, et. al, 2007). The human being is never static, from conception to death, physical and psychological change is constantly taking place in all of us. The process of development has been thought of in terms of stages that each of us must go through. These stages are characterized by certain behavioral or developmental characteristics that each of us goes through at different rates and even at different ages.Among the stages of development, no other aspect of the life cycle has commanded as much attention as adolescence. Adolescence can easily be described as the best of times and the worst of times. This stage is affected by the structure of the society in which the individual is raised. Hence, different cultures may have different conceptions of adolescence. Many cultures have rites of passage when the child enters adolescence or adulthood.While in Western cultures, it is a gradual t ransition from childhood to adulthood. Adolescence is marked by changes in the physical, emotional, social and cognitive aspects of the individual. The rapid physical changes occur at the onset of puberty; during adolescence the bodily changes often occur at a slower rate. In this stage, due to increased activity of the gonads at puberty, sex glands develop rapidly and become functional, the sex organs mature and the major secondary sex characteristics are more defined.The skeleton stops growing, hence the adolescent reaches his/her mature height in this stage and the various parts of the body gradually come into proportion (Steinberg, 2002). The physical changes that adolescents experience causes their preoccupation with their physical appearance and of what may be considered as â€Å"normal† Developmental Stages Page #2 development. Few adolescents are content with their bodies, and this discontent can lead to lowered self-esteems and insecurity. Moreover, adolescence disco vers their sexuality in this stage and tends to act on it.Adolescents also experience heightened emotional tensions, which may result from the hormonal and physical changes they are going through, it can also be brought about by the social pressures they must face and of which they have not been prepared. Adolescents experience emotional instability from time to time, which results from their adjustments to changes in their lives. Like when they are angered by the thought that they are being treated like a child or treated unfairly. However, they express their anger by sulking, refusing to speak our loudly criticizing those who angered them.While adolescent emotions are often intense, uncontrolled and seemingly irrational, it improves with age (Geselle, et. al, 1956). Adolescent’s emotions also impact the way they relate with other people and how they view their social sphere. Adolescent’s thought patterns are generally egocentric. Elkind (1967) proposed that adolescen ts assume that everyone else in the world views the world as they do. Adolescent egocentrism has two facets, the personal fable and the imaginary audience. The personal fable is a romanticized self-generated story of one’s personal destiny.Like when the adolescent believes that shoplifting is bad and there is a possibility of being caught by the police, but feels that it will not happen to him/her. The imaginary audience refers to the adolescent’s belief that other people are scrutinizing him/her because he/she is the most important concern of other people. The concept of the imaginary audience may help explain why students are not comfortable in giving reports or presentations in class, as they believe that they are under scrutiny when they do so.This feeling is very real for the adolescent and may impair his/her Developmental Stages Page #3 learning in the classroom. Teachers can help by being sensitive to this issue and thus provide encouragement and positive feedba ck on improvements made by students, or to assign presentations in groups of two, where the team presents it to the class to diffuse the feeling of being scrutinized. According to Piaget (1972) by the time a person reaches adolescence, he/she begins the final phase of intellectual development, which is called formal operation.This stage is characterized by the ability to solve abstract problems. The formal operational thinker is not bound by content and available experience, rather he/she can hypothesize and deal with the â€Å"what ifs†. The adolescent therefore is able to think of concepts and ideas well beyond his/her knowledge and experience, to look for answers in a systematic way and to use logical reasoning. Considering the cognitive stage of adolescents, teachers can challenge students to think beyond the common and simple responses to questions put to them.The teacher can also encourage students to make use of their cognitive skills by analyzing, predicting, justifyi ng, and defending their ideas in class. The teacher however, has to recognize that student’s conception of their ideas and abstract thoughts are products of their social and cultural backgrounds, thus students may give different explanations to a particular question or hypothesis. Like when students are asked to analyze the reasons why societies celebrate events, the teacher must allow for other cultural celebrations and not limit it to American celebrations. References Elkind, D. (1967). Egocentrism and Adolescence Child Development, 38, 1025-1034 Gesell, A., Ilg, F., & Ames, L. (1956). Youth: The years from ten to sixteen. New York Harper  and Row Papalia, D., Olds, S., & Feldman, R. (2007). Human Development, 10th ed.   McGraw Hill Piaget, J. (1972). Intellectual evolution from adolescence to adulthood. Human Development 15:  1-12. Steinberg, L. (2002). Adolescence 6th ed. McGraw Hill

Barilla Spa Case Report

Executive Summary As per our conversation last week I would like to revisit the idea originally brought to life by Brando Vitali before he was promoted to head one of our company’s new divisions overseas. In order to address the issue which will be a direct result of introduction of JIT Distribution system, I would like to present the issues and my recommendations to you before our meeting with Marconi’s executives to discuss JITD proposal.As the meeting is scheduled for the of November I would like to hear your thoughts on JITD before the end of this month so I can make appropriate changes to address any issues you might foresee as a direct result of our proposal. The decision to adopt the Just-in-Time Distribution will most likely be met with our sales and marketing team’s resistance to change. Our old-fashioned distribution system has been nurtured since the early development of our channels of distribution.Promotions and advertising were key to our success of achieving a certain level of trust within our Supply Chain both internally and externally. I recommend a staged implementation of the JITD to allow our staff to adapt to our new philosophy. Our distribution networks could become more efficient rather than being all about relationships based on pushing the product out of our facilities. It appears that our Supply Chain executives are not looking for ways to reduce waste within our distribution channels as we are not even clear on how we measure our success.Applying Lean principles to our Supply Chain is misleading to our staff as they think their job security is on the line. This is met with internal resistance that needs to be addressed before we can communicate the advantages and benefits of JITD to our external distribution networks. I believe that Vitali’s approach will fit our new Supply Chain management strategy of Just-in-Time Distribution which will allow us to ship products as needed, rather than building enormous st ock to deal with volatile demand patterns.We need to break down the silos and secrecy of our distribution processes to our customers to allow for more efficient channels of distribution. A more transparent approach with fewer layers along the way will allow for a much more efficient Supply Chain. Working closely with our distributors will allow us to reduce our own inventory and manufacturing costs along the way. We also need to consider our own forecasting systems to built the trust within our channels of distribution.Scheduled monthly meeting will allow for an open dialogue between various groups that might be affected by this implementation. I believe that open lines of communication both internally and externally will contribute to the ultimate success of JITD implementation. We will have to address issues as they come up to ensure the peace of mind of those who will be affected the most. We need to be more flexible to address problems and bottle necks of our distributors as tha t would be crucial to success of JITD.The main idea we need to communicate across our Supply Chain is that JITD would allow us to eliminate waste and get rid of extra layers which our in the way of addressing our issue of volatile demand patters which result in stockouts. Giorgio Maggali, MBA, SCMP Director of Materials Management Barilla Fresh Products Group October 16, 2012 Barilla Spa Case Study Issue Identification As the decision maker in this case I believe that the main issue presented in this case study is resistance to change.To be more specific, DO’s (Organized Distributors) resistance to adopt a new Just-in-Time distribution (JITD) system which would replace the old-fashioned distribution system used by Barilla’s Supply Chain traditionally. This traditional distribution system has always been viewed as a successful one, as it worked for everyone within the channels of distribution supplying dry products to supermarket chains and independent supermarkets. The re was a certain level of trust achieved between the marketing group, sales reps and buyers who are a part of the Supply Chain built around trade promotions.DO’s expectations of frequent trade promotions were considered the only means to cost reduction during the â€Å"canvass† periods where distributors were able to buy as much product as desired to meet current and future needs. This is a well nurtured traditional system which took a lot of years to develop. Environmental and Root Cause Analysis Approximately 65% of Barilla’s dry products were supplied through outside distributors to supermarket chains and independent supermarkets who would eventually get the product into the hands of the ultimate user.Distributors would receive their product from one of the two Barilla’s central distribution centers (CDCs) where movement of product would be assessed based on its category which would be either â€Å"dry† or â€Å"fresh†. Barilla maintained different distribution systems for its dry and fresh products due to their differences in perishability and retail service requirements. Brando Vitali’s JITD proposal focused solely on dry products sold through Barilla’s distributors who I am going to examine. There is an industry culture around the supply and demand of Barilla products.Internal and external politics are at the root cause of the resistance to change around the distribution channels. There are issues that Barilla needs to address internally before the idea of JITD can come to life externally. Barilla’s sales and marketing personnel have expressed a range of concerns because this new philosophy could potentially cost some staff and executives their jobs from the bottom to the top of the sales organization as it is developed further. Sales executives are clinging to the idea of promotion based strategy which the old-fashioned distribution system is based around.This is not a good sign as efforts t o reduce costs should be made from all aspects of the Supply Chain Management. Executives should be concerned with efficiency of their supply chains from different tiers of suppliers all the way thru different tiers of their customers until the product reaches its ultimate user. Barilla executives are not looking for ways to reduce waste within their distribution channels as it’s not even clear how they measure success of their sales force. Barillas distribution network is only based around relationships, not necessarily around efficiency of their supply chain.They should be looking at ways to eliminate waste, even if it means â€Å"leaning out† their sales force and only keeping those who truly perform well. Staff will always resist change as it is uncertainty that scares everyone when new ideas are introduced within an organization, especially if it might put their job security on the line. Once the internal issues are addressed and the new philosophy starts taking p recedence they can effectively communicate JITD to their DO channels. Sales reps would be successful at communicating the ideas and benefits of JITD system to the buyers of the Organized Distributors.Those buyers would then facilitate the flow of this information from the bottom to the top of the organization before a meeting can take place with Marconi and other DOs. Alternatives and/or Options Giver the current situation, I believe there are only two options to consider here. First one is to remain status quo and run the risk of stockouts as the effect of fluctuating demand which due to variation in demand leads to cost increases. The other option would be to embrace the new philosophy of JITD internally and communicate it further down the supply chain to the DOs.Brando Vitali had it right all along with the idea he referred to as Just-in-Time Distribution (JITD) which was modelled after the renowned â€Å"Just-in-Time† manufacturing concept. His philosophy was to consider JITD as a selling tool rather that a threat to sales. Vitali’s view was that as a supply chain we should focus on demand from end user as that is the supply we trying to address at the time it’s required. In order to effectively address the issues of fluctuating demand we need to be able to respond to unexpectedly high demand from the end-consumer and the quickest way to do that would be to eliminate as many layers as possible.Additional inventories to dampen fluctuations costs money, costs of maintaining certain service levels should also be taken into consideration. Rather than filling distributors demand, according to their planning department, we should be looking at distributors data directly and only send what is needed rather than supply distributors with inventory they can hold to anticipate demand swings. By doing so, we would be able to improve operations for ourselves and our customers if we were responsible for determining the quantities and delivery schedu les.This will allow us to further reduce costs as transportation could be handled by our CDCs based on sales volume variations. Recommendation and Implementation I recommend the JITD system as it will address the stockouts issues we’re currently experiencing as the effect of fluctuating demand. Our distributors already carry too much inventory (see Exhibit 13) which doesn’t resolve the stockouts issues we’re seeing despite the fact that they are holding a couple of weeks inventory.We should be able to improve operations for our distributors if we were allowed to be responsible for determining quantities and delivery schedules based on end users demand. This would allow us to ship product as per demand required rather than trying to manufacture stock large enough to supply both of our facilities. Furthermore we would be able to reduce our own distribution, inventory and manufacturing costs and pass those savings onto our customers if we didn’t have to worr y about volatile demand patterns.Ultimately this will work the same way it does with Barilla sales representatives assisting with setting up in-store promotions analyzing competitive information including competitor’s prices, stockouts and new product additions. This would be effective because no one knows our product better than we do. If our sales reps are allowed at distribution facilities, they would be able to assist, gather and exchange a lot of valuable information about our needs and those of our DOs. The more we know about each other’s business the better off our Supply Chain will be.The fewer layers we have, the quicker we can get our product to our ultimate customers; reducing our own inventory and manufacturing costs along the way. We’ll have to improve our own forecasting systems of course as it is imperative to our business that our distributors have that extra confidence in our abilities. Monitor and Control This sort of an idea would require a lo t of back and forth communication both internally and externally. Cross functional teams would be required to address issues and concerns which might arise from this sort of implementation.The whole process should be done in stages to allow staff to adapt to the changes gradually. Keeping everyone informed would be key as the only way to reassure staff and address uncertainty would be to educate them on pros on cons of the system being brought to life. Regularly scheduled monthly meetings are an absolute must to address issues as they arise. New KPI’s should be clearly communicated to the sale reps. Our reps should be clear on all of the aspects of JITD implementation as they would play an important role of facilitating the flow of information down the Supply Chain.Once DOs are up to speed on JITD, a simulation should be considered with external distributors to demonstrate the benefits of the new distribution system once it is implemented. Inviting DO representatives to see o ur manufacturing facilities and addressing their concerns with solutions would go along way on establishing rapport and strengthening relationships. Probing and addressing bottle necks of our distributors with JITD would also be beneficial to everyone as our ability to eliminate wastes and get rid of extra layers would reduce costs across the Supply Chain.